Attitudes and Social Cognition

Explaining Social Behaviour

Social behaviour refers to how individuals interact with each other, influenced by the presence, actual or imagined, of other people. Understanding why people behave the way they do in social contexts is the core focus of social psychology. Human social behaviour is complex and is not solely determined by individual traits; it is heavily shaped by social contexts, group dynamics, and psychological processes related to how we perceive, interpret, and respond to the social world.

Two key areas help explain social behaviour:

• Attitudes: Our evaluations, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards objects, people, or ideas in the social world. Attitudes influence how we react to and interact with others.
• Social Cognition: How we process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. This includes how we perceive others, form impressions, make judgments, and understand social cues.

These concepts help us unravel phenomena such as why people help others, why prejudice exists, how groups influence individuals, and how our beliefs about the world are formed and changed.

Nature And Components Of Attitudes

An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour. In simpler terms, it is a learned predisposition to respond consistently in a favourable or unfavourable manner towards a person, object, idea, or situation. Attitudes are not innate; they are formed through learning and experience.

Components of Attitudes (ABC Model)

Attitudes are often described as having three interconnected components:

1. Affective Component:

This refers to the emotional reaction or feeling associated with the attitude object. It is the "feelings" aspect. For example, feeling happy about reading a book, feeling angry about a political policy, or feeling fearful of spiders.

2. Behavioural Component:

This refers to the tendency or intention to behave in a certain way towards the attitude object. It is the "action" aspect. For example, deciding to buy the book because you feel happy about reading, joining a protest against the political policy, or avoiding spiders.

3. Cognitive Component:

This refers to the beliefs, knowledge, thoughts, or ideas held about the attitude object. It is the "thoughts" aspect. For example, believing that reading books is informative, thinking that the political policy is unfair, or knowing that spiders are generally harmless (despite the fear).

These three components are often consistent, meaning that positive feelings are associated with positive thoughts and a tendency to approach or favour the object, and vice versa. However, there can be inconsistencies, for example, knowing that smoking is harmful (cognitive) but still feeling pleasure from it (affective) and continuing to smoke (behavioural).

Answer:

Attitudes serve several functions, including helping us understand the world, guide our behaviour, and express our values. They are fundamental to social life and influence everything from consumer choices to political views and interpersonal relationships.

Attitude Formation And Change

Attitudes are learned, and therefore, they are formed through various processes and can also be changed.

Attitude Formation

Attitudes are not something we are born with; they develop over time through experiences and interactions with the social environment.

Process Of Attitude Formation

1. Learning by Association:

Forming an attitude towards an object because it is repeatedly associated with another object or event that already has an attitude attached to it (classical conditioning).

Answer:

2. Learning by Reward or Punishment:

Forming attitudes based on the consequences of holding or expressing certain attitudes (operant conditioning). Attitudes that are reinforced become stronger, while those that are punished become weaker.

Answer:

3. Learning by Modelling (Observational Learning):

Forming attitudes by observing and imitating the attitudes and behaviours of others, especially those we admire or identify with (e.g., parents, peers, celebrities).

Answer:

4. Learning through Group or Cultural Norms:

Adopting attitudes that are prevalent within the groups we belong to or the culture we live in. This is a powerful source of attitude formation, as conforming to group norms is often rewarded.

Answer:

5. Learning through Exposure to Information:

Forming attitudes based on reading, watching, or hearing information from various sources (e.g., media, books, lectures).

Factors That Influence Attitude Formation

Several factors facilitate attitude formation:

• Family and School: Primary agents of socialisation where children learn foundational attitudes.
• Peer Groups: Influence attitudes, especially during adolescence.
• Personal Experiences: Direct experiences with attitude objects are powerful in shaping attitudes. A single negative experience can lead to a strong negative attitude.
• Media: Mass media (TV, internet, social media) expose individuals to a wide range of information and perspectives, influencing attitude formation and change.
• Cultural Background: Provides the broader context and norms that shape attitudes.

Attitude Change

While relatively stable, attitudes are not immutable; they can and do change. Attitude change is a core area of study in social psychology, particularly in fields like advertising and political campaigns.

Process Of Attitude Change

Attitude change can occur through various processes:

1. Cognitive Consistency:

People prefer their attitudes (and behaviours) to be consistent with each other. Inconsistency (dissonance) is uncomfortable and motivates change.

• Balance Theory (Heider): Focuses on consistency among three elements: the person (P), another person (O), and an attitude object (X). We strive for a balanced state where our attitudes towards these elements are in harmony. If there's imbalance, one attitude might change.

  Balanced Example: P likes O, P likes X, O likes X (+ + + = +).

  Unbalanced Example: P likes O, P dislikes X, O likes X (+ - + = -). P might change their attitude towards O or X to restore balance.

• Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger): Occurs when there is inconsistency between two or more attitudes, or between attitudes and behaviour. This creates psychological tension. To reduce dissonance, individuals may change one of the inconsistent attitudes or behaviours, or justify the inconsistency.

  Example 6.

  Attitude 1: Smoking is bad for my health.

  Attitude 2 (or Behaviour): I smoke regularly.

  Answer:

  This inconsistency creates dissonance. To reduce it, the person might:

  - Quit smoking (change behaviour).

  - Change Attitude 1 ("Smoking isn't that bad, my grandfather smoked his whole life and lived long").

  - Add a consonant cognition ("Smoking helps me relax").

  - Minimise the importance of the inconsistent attitudes ("Health isn't that important to me").

2. Two-Step Concept (Kelman):

Describes attitude change in two stages:

• Step 1: Target of Change: The person exposed to the message accepts the message content.
• Step 2: Mode of Change: The acceptance happens through one of three processes:
  • Compliance: Publicly agreeing with the message or source to gain rewards or avoid punishment, without necessarily changing private attitude.
  • Identification: Adopting the attitude because one identifies with the source (e.g., liking a celebrity endorser). The change lasts as long as the identification continues.
  • Internalisation: Adopting the attitude because it is congruent with one's own values and beliefs. This is the most lasting form of attitude change.

3. Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo):

Suggests there are two routes to persuasion and attitude change:

• Central Route: Occurs when people are motivated and able to think carefully about the message content. Attitude change is based on the strength and quality of the arguments. This leads to more lasting attitude change.
• Peripheral Route: Occurs when people are not motivated or able to process the message deeply. Attitude change is influenced by peripheral cues, such as the source's attractiveness or credibility, or the number of arguments presented, regardless of quality. This leads to less lasting attitude change.

The route taken depends on factors like motivation, ability, and the nature of the message.

Factors That Influence Attitude Change (Persuasion)

The effectiveness of persuasion in changing attitudes depends on characteristics of the:

1. Source:

Who is delivering the message?

• Credibility: Sources perceived as knowledgeable and trustworthy are more persuasive.
• Attractiveness: Likable or physically attractive sources can be more persuasive, especially via the peripheral route.
• Similarity: We are more likely to be persuaded by people we perceive as similar to us.

2. Message:

What is the content of the message?

• Content: Clear, well-organised, and strong arguments are more persuasive via the central route.
• Emotional Appeal: Messages using fear appeals (e.g., showing negative consequences of smoking) or positive emotions can be effective if not too extreme.
• Repetition: Repeated exposure to a message can increase liking (mere exposure effect), but too much repetition can lead to boredom or reactance.
• Format: How the message is presented (e.g., audio, visual).

3. Target/Audience:

Who is receiving the message?

• Prior Attitudes: Attitudes that are strong, central to self-concept, or formed through direct experience are harder to change.
• Personality Traits: People high in need for cognition are more likely to be persuaded by strong arguments (central route).
• Vulnerability: Individuals may be more susceptible to persuasion when tired, distracted, or young.

4. Context:

The situation in which the persuasion occurs.

• Channel: The medium used (e.g., face-to-face, TV, internet).
• Group Influence: Whether the message aligns with group norms.

Understanding these factors is crucial for designing effective campaigns for social change, public health, or marketing in the Indian context, considering cultural nuances and audience characteristics.

Attitude-Behaviour Relationship

Intuitively, we expect attitudes to predict behaviour. If someone has a positive attitude towards recycling, we expect them to recycle. However, research shows that the link between attitudes and behaviour is not always straightforward and can be weaker than expected.

When Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour?

Attitudes are more likely to predict behaviour when:

• The attitude is Strong and Stable: Attitudes that are held with conviction and have been formed through direct experience are better predictors.
• The attitude is Accessible: Attitudes that come to mind easily influence spontaneous behaviour.
• The attitude is Specific to the Behaviour: A specific attitude towards a specific behaviour (e.g., "I intend to vote in the upcoming municipal elections") is a better predictor than a general attitude ("I have a positive attitude towards democracy").
• Situational Influences are Minimal: Strong situational pressures or social norms can override the influence of an individual's attitude.
• The Individual is Self-Aware: When individuals are more aware of their attitudes, the attitude-behaviour consistency increases.

Factors Influencing the Link:

• Social Norms: Behaviour is often more strongly influenced by what is considered acceptable or expected in a social situation than by individual attitudes.

  Example 7.

  Attitude: You personally believe that dowry is wrong.

  Behaviour: Attending or participating in wedding ceremonies where dowry is exchanged, perhaps due to family pressure or social norms.

  Answer:

  In this case, a strong social norm or pressure overrides the individual's attitude, demonstrating a weak attitude-behaviour link.
• Perceived Control: The belief that one has control over performing the behaviour influences whether the attitude translates into action.
• Other Attitudes: Behaviour towards an object might be influenced by multiple conflicting attitudes.

The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is reciprocal; not only do attitudes influence behaviour, but engaging in certain behaviours can also change attitudes (as seen in cognitive dissonance theory).

Prejudice And Discrimination

Prejudice and discrimination are pervasive social phenomena with significant negative consequences.

Prejudice:

Prejudice is a preconceived negative attitude towards a group and its individual members. It involves a negative evaluation based solely on group membership, rather than individual merit.

Components of Prejudice (similar to attitudes):

• Cognitive: Stereotypes - Generalised beliefs about a group of people, often oversimplified and inaccurate (e.g., "All people from this region are lazy").
• Affective: Negative feelings or emotions towards the group (e.g., dislike, fear, hostility towards a particular religious or caste group).
• Behavioural: Discrimination - Unfair or biased treatment of individuals based on their group membership.

Discrimination:

Discrimination is the act of behaving differently, usually unfairly, towards members of a group. While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behaviour. Discrimination can be overt (explicit refusal to hire someone based on caste) or subtle (less favourable treatment).

Answer:

Sources of Prejudice:

• Social Learning: Learning prejudice from parents, peers, and media.
• Realistic Conflict Theory: Prejudice arises from competition for limited resources (jobs, housing).
• Social Identity Theory: We derive self-esteem from group membership; favouring our ingroup (us) and derogating outgroups (them) boosts our social identity.
• Scapegoating: Blaming an innocent outgroup for one's own troubles.
• Authoritarian Personality: A personality type characterised by rigidity, respect for authority, and hostility towards minorities.
• Cultural Factors: Prejudice can be deeply embedded in cultural history, traditions, and institutions (e.g., historical oppression based on caste or religion).

Prejudice and discrimination are significant social problems in India, manifested in various forms, including casteism, communalism (religious prejudice), regionalism, and gender bias.

Strategies For Handling Prejudice

Reducing prejudice and discrimination is a critical goal for creating a more just and equitable society. Various strategies have been proposed and tested.

1. Education and Awareness:

Providing accurate information about outgroups can challenge stereotypes and reduce prejudice. Education about the history and consequences of discrimination (e.g., the impact of caste discrimination) can foster empathy and reduce biased attitudes.

2. Intergroup Contact:

Bringing members of different groups into contact under specific conditions can reduce prejudice (Allport's Contact Hypothesis):

• Equal Status: Both groups have equal standing in the situation.
• Common Goals: Groups work together towards shared objectives.
• Intergroup Cooperation: Requires collaboration, not competition.
• Support by Authorities/Norms: Social norms and leaders support the contact and equality.

Example: The Jigsaw Classroom technique in schools, where students from different groups work together on interdependent parts of a project, has been shown to reduce prejudice. In India, initiatives promoting inter-caste or inter-religious dialogues and joint community projects can facilitate positive contact.

3. Re-categorisation (Common Ingroup Identity Model):

Encouraging individuals to perceive themselves as belonging to a larger, common ingroup identity that includes members of the former outgroup (e.g., shifting from "us vs. them" based on religion to "we are all Indians").

4. De-categorisation:

Focusing on individual differences within outgroups, reducing the tendency to see them as a homogeneous "them".

5. Attitudinal and Cognitive Interventions:

Encouraging individuals to become aware of their own biases and actively challenging stereotypes. This can involve perspective-taking (imagining oneself in the shoes of an outgroup member) or practicing non-biased thinking.

6. Legal and Policy Measures:

Anti-discrimination laws and policies (like reservations in India) can help reduce overt discrimination, although they do not necessarily change underlying prejudiced attitudes directly. They establish a framework for equitable treatment.

7. Promoting Empathy and Perspective-Taking:

Encouraging people to understand and share the feelings and experiences of those from different groups.

Addressing prejudice requires a multi-pronged approach targeting individual attitudes, social interactions, institutional practices, and cultural norms.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is the study of how people process information about themselves and others. It involves how we perceive, interpret, remember, and use information in social situations to make judgments, inferences, and decisions. It helps us understand how we make sense of the complex social world around us.

Key aspects of social cognition include:

• Schema: Mental frameworks or structures that organise information about the world.
• Attribution: Explaining the causes of behaviour (our own and others').
• Impression Formation: Forming judgments about others.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts used to make quick judgments.
• Social Inference: Drawing conclusions about others based on available information.

Social cognition highlights that our understanding of the social world is not always objective; it is influenced by our existing knowledge structures, motivations, and cognitive biases.

Schemas And Stereotypes

Schemas are fundamental cognitive structures that help us organise and interpret information. Stereotypes are a specific type of social schema related to groups of people.

Schemas:

Schemas are mental frameworks or blueprints that help us organise, interpret, and process information about various aspects of the world, including people, objects, events, and situations. They are based on our past experiences and knowledge.

Types of Schemas:

• Person Schemas: About specific individuals (e.g., schema for your best friend).
• Self-Schemas: About ourselves (e.g., believing you are shy, intelligent).
• Role Schemas: About expected behaviours of people in certain roles (e.g., doctor, teacher, mother-in-law).
• Event Schemas (Scripts): About expected sequences of events in specific situations (e.g., what happens when you go to a restaurant or attend a wedding).
• Group Schemas (Stereotypes): About characteristics of people belonging to certain social groups.

Functions of Schemas:

• Organise Information: Help us make sense of the vast amount of social information we encounter.
• Guide Attention and Memory: We tend to pay attention to and remember information consistent with our schemas.
• Influence Interpretation: Ambiguous information is often interpreted in a way that fits our existing schemas.
• Predict Future Events: Help us make predictions about how people might behave or what might happen in a situation.

Stereotypes:

Stereotypes are simplified, overgeneralized, and often negative schemas about members of a particular social group. They attribute certain traits or characteristics to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual individual differences.

Characteristics of Stereotypes:

• Oversimplification: Reducing complex individuals to a few presumed group characteristics.
• Generalisation: Applying traits of a few individuals to the entire group.
• Resistance to Change: Stereotypes are often deeply ingrained and difficult to change, even in the face of contradictory evidence.
• Often Negative: While positive stereotypes exist, stereotypes are frequently negative and contribute to prejudice and discrimination.

Stereotypes function as cognitive shortcuts (heuristics) that allow for rapid judgments about people based on group membership, but they often lead to inaccurate perceptions and unfair treatment.

Answer:

Schemas are essential for cognitive processing, but stereotypes represent a problematic application of schemas that fuels prejudice and hinders accurate social perception.

Impression Formation And Explaining Behaviour Of Others Through Attributions

When we interact with others, we constantly form impressions of them and try to understand why they behave in certain ways. These processes are core aspects of social cognition.

Impression Formation

Impression formation is the process by which we combine information about a person to form an overall judgment or impression of them. This happens very quickly, often within seconds of meeting someone.

Key Aspects of Impression Formation:

• Primacy Effect: Information received early in the interaction has a stronger influence on the overall impression than later information.
• Recency Effect: Information received most recently can sometimes have a stronger influence, especially if the initial information was ambiguous or there is a delay between information.
• Central Traits: Certain traits (e.g., 'warm' vs. 'cold') can have a disproportionate impact on the overall impression, influencing how other traits are interpreted.
• Implicit Personality Theories: Personal beliefs about which traits tend to go together (e.g., if someone is kind, they are also likely to be honest).
• Stereotypes: Pre-existing stereotypes heavily influence initial impressions based on group membership.
• Halo Effect: A positive impression in one area (e.g., attractiveness) influences positive judgments in other areas (e.g., intelligence, kindness).

Impression formation is an efficient process but is prone to biases, particularly the influence of stereotypes and early information. These initial impressions can be difficult to change later.

Attribution Of Causality

Attribution is the process of explaining the causes of behaviour, both our own and that of others. Why did someone act that way? Why did I succeed or fail?

Types of Attributions:

• Internal (Dispositional) Attributions: Attributing behaviour to internal characteristics of the person, such as their personality traits, abilities, or effort (e.g., "He failed the exam because he is lazy").
• External (Situational) Attributions: Attributing behaviour to external factors, such as the situation, circumstances, or luck (e.g., "He failed the exam because the test was unfair").

Covariation Principle (Kelley):

Suggests people make attributions by considering how behaviour varies across different situations, people, and times. We look for:

• Consensus: Do other people behave the same way in this situation? (High consensus $\rightarrow$ External attribution).
• Distinctiveness: Does this person behave differently in other situations? (High distinctiveness $\rightarrow$ External attribution).
• Consistency: Does this person behave the same way in this situation over time? (High consistency $\rightarrow$ Internal attribution if consensus and distinctiveness are low; External attribution if consensus and distinctiveness are high).

Answer:

Attribution Biases:

Systematic errors in our attributional processes:

• Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): The tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors (personality) and underestimate the influence of external factors (situation) when explaining the behaviour of *others*.

  Example 11.

  Someone is late for a meeting.

  Answer:

  FAE: Attributing lateness to the person's laziness or irresponsibility (internal) while overlooking potential external factors like traffic or a genuine emergency. This bias is stronger in individualistic cultures.
• Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to attribute *our own* behaviour to external factors (situation) but attribute the *same behaviour in others* to internal factors (personality). (e.g., "I was late because of traffic," but "He was late because he is disorganised").
• Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (ability, effort) and our failures to external factors (luck, unfair circumstances). This protects our self-esteem. (e.g., "I aced the exam because I'm smart," but "I failed because the teacher is unfair").

Attribution biases demonstrate how our cognitive processes can be skewed, influencing our judgments and interactions with others. Understanding these biases is important for more accurate social perception. The strength of some biases, like FAE, can vary across cultures, being less pronounced in collectivistic cultures that emphasise situational factors.

Behaviour In The Presence Of Others

The mere presence of other people can influence an individual's behaviour, even without direct interaction. Social psychology explores several phenomena related to this.

1. Social Facilitation:

The tendency for the presence of others to improve performance on simple or well-learned tasks. The presence of others increases physiological arousal, and this arousal enhances performance on easy tasks where the dominant response is correct.

Answer:

2. Social Inhibition:

The tendency for the presence of others to impair performance on complex or poorly learned tasks. On difficult tasks, the dominant response is likely incorrect, and increased arousal due to the presence of others hinders performance.

Answer:

Note: The key is the task difficulty and how well-learned it is, not whether the task is physical or mental.

3. Social Loafing:

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively on a group task compared to when working individually on the same task. This occurs because responsibility is diffused among group members, making individuals feel less accountable for the outcome.

Answer:

Social loafing is less likely to occur when individual contributions are identifiable, the task is challenging or meaningful, the group is small, or group members are cohesive and value the group outcome.

4. Deindividuation:

A state of reduced self-awareness and reduced concern with evaluation that occurs when individuals are part of a large group or crowd, especially when anonymity is high. This can lead to impulsive, deviant, or aggressive behaviour that the individual would not normally engage in alone.

Answer:

Understanding these phenomena helps explain how our behaviour changes simply by being around others, influencing performance on tasks, effort in groups, and behaviour in crowds.

Pro-social Behaviour

Pro-social behaviour refers to any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person. This includes helping, comforting, sharing, cooperating, and donating. It is behaviour valued by society. Altruism is a specific type of pro-social behaviour where the motive is solely to help another person, even at a potential cost to oneself, without expectation of reward.

Why Do People Help? (Theoretical Perspectives)

• Evolutionary Psychology: Suggests that helping can be adaptive. Kin selection (helping relatives promotes survival of shared genes) and reciprocity (helping others increases the likelihood of being helped in return).
• Social Exchange Theory: Helping is motivated by a desire to maximise benefits and minimise costs. People help when the rewards of helping (e.g., praise, feeling good, reducing distress) outweigh the costs (e.g., danger, time, effort).
• Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson): When we feel empathy for someone, we are motivated to help purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of personal gain. When empathy is low, helping may be based on social exchange considerations.
• Social Norms: Norms like the reciprocity norm (help those who help you) and the social responsibility norm (help those who need help) guide pro-social behaviour.

Factors Influencing Pro-social Behaviour

1. Situational Factors:

• The Bystander Effect (Latane & Darley): The greater the number of bystanders present, the less likely any one individual is to help in an emergency. This is due to diffusion of responsibility ("Someone else will help"), pluralistic ignorance (looking to others who also appear calm and concluding that no emergency exists), and evaluation apprehension (fear of being judged or making a mistake).

  Example 16.

  Someone collapses in a busy marketplace vs. on a secluded street.

  Answer:

  According to the bystander effect, help is less likely in the busy marketplace where there are many potential helpers and diffusion of responsibility is high.
• Time Pressure: People in a hurry are less likely to help.
• Nature of the Situation: Whether the situation is clear, unambiguous, and perceived as a genuine emergency.
• Location: Helping is more likely in rural areas than urban areas.

2. Personal Factors:

• Personality Traits: Traits like empathy, agreeableness, and high emotional intelligence are associated with higher pro-social behaviour.
• Mood: People in a good mood are more likely to help ("feel good, do good").
• Gender: Research findings are mixed and depend on the type of helping needed.
• Competence: Feeling capable of providing help increases the likelihood of helping.
• Religion/Spirituality: Religious beliefs often promote helping behaviour, particularly towards ingroup members, although universal altruism is also a value in many faiths.

3. Socio-cultural Factors:

• Social Norms: Cultures that emphasise collectivism and social responsibility may foster more helping behaviour towards ingroup members.
• Cultural Values: Values like Sewa (selfless service) in Sikhism or the concept of Dana (charity, giving) across various Indian traditions explicitly promote pro-social behaviour.
• Learning and Socialisation: Children who are encouraged to help and observe helping behaviour are more likely to become pro-social adults.

Promoting pro-social behaviour involves reducing bystander effects (e.g., clearly identifying someone to help in an emergency), teaching empathy and social responsibility, and fostering cultural values that encourage helping.